The 411 on copyright for net p Essay Example For Students

The 411 on copyright for net p Essay Introduction Wow who owns all these pretty pictures? Net Photogs See me, feel me, touch me, pay me. Net Agencies Service with a click of a mouse. Net Publishers All is fair in love, war and publishing. Net Users Free ride! INTRODUCTION If Francesca were alive today she could track her lovers photos from his homepage instead of schlepping to the Piggly Wiggly to purchase the latest National Geographic. Even if you are stuck in Peoria,1 the family can gather around the key board, open up your Happy Meals and view some of the Best Photography in the world. You want pictures? Boy do we have pictures, click onto the Photo Net Index for a inventory of photographers portfolios, galleries, and museums. Who owns the copyrights to all these cool Net photos? This paper presents a sampling of opinions and predictions about the application of copyright law to Net photos in relation to contemporary photographers; stock photo agencies; publishers; and Net users. THE NET PHOTOG ENTREPRENEUR NET ADV ANTAGES Contemporary Photographers are creating homepages to display portfolios on the Net to advertise for jobs, learn new skills, network with colleagues, and provide pleasure to the viewing public. Stacy Rosenstocks portfolio is an example of the excellent photo art available for viewing on the Net. Photographer/author/adventurer Philip Greenspun uses photos to accompany text in Travels With Samantha Mr. Greenspun says that viewer response is one of the rewards for publishing on the Net.2 The Net is a unique medium for photographers, offering one-on-one feedback from viewers, fellow photographers and critics on a scale not available from the typical art gallery or magazine venue. The scale is larger in terms of the number of potential viewers and the boarderless international viewing audience who may choose to browse. A computer savvy photographer may create a homepage portfolio or seek display with one of the on-line galleries such as that Digital Wave Gallery, or that On Line G allery. A photographer choosing the Net as a display venue can also use the net to learn about copyrights. The American Society for media Photographers offers easy to read copyright information in the that Copyright Guide for Photographers . INFRINGEMENT ENFORCEMENT When a photographer discovers a photo has been published without authorization, the photographer maybe able to secure an injunction, recover actual damages and lost profits.3 Mr. Weisgrau and Mr. Remer point out the legal advantage to writing a copyright notice on the photograph consisting of (c)1995 Artists Name.4 That advantage is possible elimination of the innocent infringer defense.5 Innocent infringers may only be liable for a fair licensing fee.6 An order to sue an infringer the copyright holder must register the photo.7 In order to register the photo, the photographer must possess the photo. Traditionally this is not a problem because the photographer would have a negative, or a print or a slide or some tangible object as a photo. If the photographer has scanned the photo onto a home page or provided the photo to a gallery then there would be no problem if the photographer retains the original. See Philip Greenspuns FAQ on photo scanning. Similarly a CD disk photo would also be tangible to register. However when a photographer uses a filmless camera this projects images directly onto a computer for real-time adjustment.8 If a photographer were to upload this kind of photo, some tangible print would still be required for registration.9 The problem of fixation as it relates to photos on the Net will usually arise in the context of whether or not a photograph was copied by an infringer.10 Certain ephemeral artworks like the type produced by Christo, have been the subject of controversy in terms of the fixation requirement for copyright protection.11 In the context of copyright protection for computer programs the Ninth Circuit held in MAI Systems Corp. v. Peak Computer Inc., that copying for p urposes of copyright law occurs when a computer program is transferred from a permanent storage device to a computers RAM random access memory.12 The court described fixation as sufficiently permanent or stable to permit them to be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated for a period of more than transitory duration.13 This decision as it relates to photos on the net may be a practical problem of proof. Net photos, like Christos sculptures, may be here today, gone tomorrow. Consequently the problem will be a whether a copyright claimant will be able to provide a court documentary evidence of the copyrightable subject matter.14 INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION International copyright protection is of special importance to Net photogs. The Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention address copyright in the international market.15 Mr. Cinque outlines the three policies supporting copyright protection: incentive/dissemination; morality/fairness; natural law.16 Incentive/di ssemination is the tradeoff that society benefits from the work of creative artists while the artist may reap economic benefits.17 Morality/fairness is the commercial aspect of rewarding the worker and punishing unauthorized appropriations.18 Natural law embodies the concept that the author owns her work and may do with it as she sees fit.19 Considering these policies, Mr. Cinque argues that under the Berne Convention a copyright may be infringed when a work is copied or stored into a computer system because it is considered a reproduction.20 The Berne Convention provides a minimum of 25 years protection for photographic works and member states may provide additional protection.21 Mr. Cinque presents the case for and against increasing global enforcement of copyright protections in the digital world and concludes that international enforcement is necessary to continue to encourage artists to share work on-line.22 ECONOMIC INCENTIVES Mr. Cinques view supports the widely held assumpti on that artists require broad copyrights with strong enforcement in order to motivate the production of new, copyrightable works. The copyright act is aimed at protecting an artists economic rights.23 Economic theory is based on the concept that individuals are rational, profit-maximizing creatures.24 But economic theory when applied to artists doesnt explain their full range of motivation. It would be difficult to explain why intelligent, presumably rational people ever become artists, a word more often associated with the adjective starving than with wealthy.25 Net photogs appear generous with fellow internetters when it comes to non-commercial use of photographs. On the other hand, no one likes someone else making money of their work. Photographer Philip Greenspun describes his frustration with unauthorized use of his pictures in, The Somewhat Nasty Copyright Notice . As an artist he not only wants to get paid, but desires a certain quality level for his photos. On the other hand , Mr. Greenspun embraces the camaraderie of fellow internetters by authorizing redistribution of his text for non commercial purposes and requesting a source attribution and hyperlink for photos. SHARING RESOURCES The camaraderie among photographers is further evidenced by the wellspring of resources for photographers on the Net. The Michigan Press Photographers Association brings photographers together to share information, as does the Atlanta Photo Journalism Seminar and numerous other resources. One suggestion to assist photographers in protecting copyrights and collecting royalties is a centralized photo bank. Mr. Franklin presents the case for creating a centralized service to license photos, collect and distribute royalties, and engage in license enforcement. 26 The centralized service would include a copyright notice and computer code with the photo in order to track use.27 A similar system was recently established and is called United Image Royalties.28 EMPLOYERS A special n ote to photographers establishing homepages from work. Two authors warn of creating works using an employers Internet connection because work-related products may be determined to be the property of the employer.29 For example, Allen Rose, Ordinary Photographer is employed by the Fort Worth Star-Telegram. Mr. Roses weekly photo series is copyrighted to the newspaper. In a related matter, notice that Mr. Rose chose the location arose rather than something like telestar for his homepage locator. Employees should be careful in choosing web locators so as to avoid trademark problems similar to MTV v. Curry, see Trademarks Along the Infobahn. STOCK PHOTO AGENCIES Many photographers use stock photo agencies to sell photos. News magazines purchase a tremendous amount of published photos from stock agencies.30 For example in 1980 Time purchased 56.88% of their published photos from stock agencies and freelance photographers.31 A traditional stock photo agency publishes catalogues with thumb print photos which customers view and then purchase camera ready prints.32 Stock agencies publicize photos and also negotiate licenses in exchange for royalties.33 See the STOCKPHOTO web site to learn about stock agencies. One advantage of an on-line agency may be the capacity to for customers to download photos immediately. Another advantage to on-line agencies may be enhanced research resources for locating the right kind of photo among the thousands in stock. CONTRACTS When a publisher desires to purchase a photo from a stock agency there may be several contractual arrangements to weave through. These contract issues are determined by state law where as copyright law per se is the subject of federal statutes.34 Contracts may exist between the subject and the photographer, the photographer and the stock agency and perhaps a digital rights agent.35 Mr. Harrang states that a typical stock photo agency contract is a license for one edition only.36 The question of what is one edition has been debated in the context of CD-ROM publications. In this context some argue that an upgrade of the product would be a second edition requiring a re-license fee.37 Harring does not agree with this view and suggests that CD-ROM and on-line publishers can avoid the problem with proper electronic licensing contracts.38 An on-line stock agency such as Corbis Media should be more familiar with structuring proper electronic rights contracts.39 In terms of protecting copyrights while displaying photos on-line, Corbis puts a copyright notice in the upper left-hand corner of the photo.40 This copyright protects the digital file not the actual photo which is copyrighted to the photographer.41 PROTECTING COPYRIGHT WITH TECHNOLOGY Additionally, when a client desires to view a larger image of a photo, the client clicks on the thumbprint photo to access the 6 x 7 inch photo.42 To protect this copyright, Corbis adds a translucent watermark on the picture.43 This method is not full-proof. CEO Doug Rowan admits that the watermark could be eliminated by a technical person and they are working toward technical improvement of the system.44 Unlike other stock agencies, Corbis on-line pictures are for preview only and are not for customer downloading.45 NET PUBLISHERS AND PHOTOJOURNALISTS In Copyright in the New World of Electronic Publishing, See attorney William Strong reassures traditional publishers that copyright law will not be eviscerated by the Net. Copyright is grounded in the Constitution and assures a financial incentive to authors and creative persons.46 Mr. Strong takes the position that in a traditional author contract granting all right, title and interest in and to the work, including copyright grants a publisher broad rights to publish electronically.47 NEW CONTRACTS FOR E-RIGHTS When a publisher drafts new contracts, Mr. Strong recommends that to ensure that a publisher is getting the whole ball of wax that the contract should read the exclusive license to r eproduce the work and distribute it by all means and media now known or hereafter discovered, including, without limitation, print, microfilm, and electronic media as well as the right to display and transmit the work publicly on-line.48 This kind of all rights transaction is not popular among photographers and the American Society of Media Photographers (AMSP). cautions photographers to consider limiting a license by time, geographic area or media type.49 It is interesting to note, that apparently Mr. Strong did not sign such a contract with the publisher of his article, the Journal of Electronic Publishing (JEP) ). The copyright notice indicates that the author, not JEP, controls the copyright, consequently commercial publication is prohibited in print or electronic form without permission of the author. The tension between a publishers desire to license all rights to a photograph, and a photographers concern about giving away too much may gum up negotiations on the electronic pub lishing frontier.50 Mr. Harrang suggests separating legitimate concerns about changing technologies from simple angst about unfamiliar technologies.51 For example, an author may agree to license rights to a CD-ROM publication but hesitate to a license for on-line networks because of metered use questions.52 A resolution to this problem may be by agreement to negotiate a fair royalty amount in the future based on the existing rates.53 For example, Time Inc. is offering an increase in photographers day rate from $400 to $500 per day to compensate for electronic rights for assignment photos.54 Time also offers a royalty option offering a base fee of $75 per image plus a royalty rate that varies depending on a number of factors including English vs. foreign language distribution.55 Terms are to be reviewed in one year.56 About half the photographers have signed the new agreements and the remaining freelancers will continue to negotiate licenses for each photo.57 Time uses the photos in their on-line magazines and other products.58 There is no agreement among the Board members of the American Society of Media Photographers regarding the Time electronics rights policy.59 The value of the rights is hard to assess but ASMP board member Roger Ressmeyer believes that, at issue is the very survival of freelance photography into the next century.60 Veteran photographer Douglas Kirkland sums up the situation well, If there wasnt a substantial value in these rights, Time wouldnt be asking for them.61 On the other end of the spectrum, publisher Conde Nast has refused to pay any additional fees for electronic rights.62 INTERPRETATION OF PRE INTERNET CONTRACTS With regard to pre-Internet contracts, Mr. Strong predicts that where a contract is silent on the issue of electronic publication, the publisher has the right to produce the entire journal in any form including electronic.63 Mr. Strong points to the Copyright Act, in the absence of a written agreement the copyright owner of a contribution to a periodical will be deemed to have given the periodical publisher only the right to reproduce the article as part of the issue of the periodical in which it appears and any revision of that periodical.64 Mr. Strong says, While technically this is not relevant to an interpretation of an actual written contract, I believe it is fair to say that the presumptions which the statute creates here would probably be applied by any court forced to grapple with a contract that was silent on the question of electronic rights.65 The interpretation of old contracts and electronic rights is the subject of controversy between photographers and, TIME Inc. Recently, Time republished some Life cover photos for a CD compilation. Time associate counsel Laury Frieber maintains that the company need not pay the photographers a reuse fee.66 Instead the company sent a letter stating, While as a legal matter we are not obliged to make any additional payments to reproduce our covers, in the spirit of this project we decided to make a payment to all non-staffers whose images graced Lifes cover.67 The letter was accompanied by a $30.00 check.68 Ben Chapnick of the Black Star picture agency disagrees with Times interpretation of the license which he says was for one time use.69 Both Mr. Strong and Mr. Chapnick agree that litigation could take years.70 And Mr. Chapnick predicts in the Time situation, litigation could cost as much as $500,000.71 In any event, says Mr. Strong, each publisher can weigh the financial risks of a copyright violation or breach of contract suit against the gains of electronic publishing.72 Of course an individual photographer is unlikely to have the financial resources to litigate a law suit. HOW ONE PUBLISHER SEEKS TO PROTECT COPYRIGHTED WORKS Michael Rogers managing editor of Newsweek Interactive an on-line publication with Prodigy has integrated the photographs with the text rather than in separate files as a way to combat copyright infrin gement.73 That way, users cant export the pictures for other uses without special software, says Mr.Rogers.74 ALTERATION OF NEWS PHOTOS New on-line technology makes it easier to edit and alter photographs. Visit Digital Imaging photographers and editors can learn new ways to improve and change photographs. But using technology to create art is one thing, using it to doctor news photos is another. Copyright protection for computer art, including photographs is an emerging issue.75 But whereas copyright protection for art photos focuses on the value of the piece as art, the value of a news photo is accuracy.76 The ethics of doctoring news photos 77 is discussed on the Michigan Press Photographers Association (MPPA) home page. This discussion is about the LIFE magazine May, 1995 photo of the Kent State shootings wherein the photo was altered from the original shot by photographer, John Filo on May 4, 1970. The alteration eliminated a pole in the center of the photograph. David Friend, Lifes Director of Photography says it was a done unbeknownst to the editors. MPPA member Brian Masck responds, saying that credibility in the source of a photo is critical to photojournalism. Whether or not photographer John Filo has a cause of action against LIFE for printing the altered photo may be an issue of whether the terms of the print license were exceeded.78 This type of alteration is distinguished from the traditional cropping and centering that a photo editor might do because it is a change in the substance of the photograph. In the future, photographers are advised to safeguard against copyright infringement by including in the license the amount of digital manipulation allowed.79 However, copyright may not be the best or even the only issue regarding authenticity of news photographs.80 Again, the chain of contracts between publisher, photographer, stock agency and photo subject may present legal issues such as false light or misappropriation.81 The news photographer is again advised, to keep original photos to protect against actions like this and to be especially careful if photographing with filmless cameras where a photographer will not possess a negative.82 Alteration of news photos is not a new issue. But new copyright issues pop up in the context of on-line news photo alteration. On the one hand, alterations can be subtle pixel-by-pixel changes that are difficult to detect.83 This capacity makes it easy to steal on-line photos in toto or in part.84 The problem here is a photographers burden of proof as it relates to the ordinary observer approach in proving substantial similarity in an infringement action.85 Photojournalism reviewer Ken Kobre examines The Long Tradition of Doctoring Photos. Mr. Kobre notes that a recent edition of The National Enquirer displayed a doctored photo of a battered Nicole Brown Simpson.86 The Enquirer noted in small type that the photo was a recreation.87 Rather than shying away from the technology and the potent ial abuse of altering on-line news photos, Mr. Kobre believes that increased photographic access assists in the discovery of truth. Totalitarian regimes have been more adept at controlling- and changing what people see precisely because those regimes control their media. 88 In the end, The credibility demanded of journalism should continue to shape its uses of the computers capabilities.89 NET USERS Everyone agrees that Net Users, like most Americans, have little knowledge of copyright law.90 Digital works have some unique characteristics which challenge copyright law.91 Three of those characteristics include ease of replication, transmission, and alteration.92 The Net allows for quick replication and transmission of works as compared to traditional replication methods.93 Modification of Net documents may also provide some challenges to a courts interpretation of fixed.94 POSTING AND DOWNLOADING PHOTOS With regard to replication, transmission and alteration, some Net users behave as if all Net information is up for grabs whether or not the material is copyrighted and has a copyright notice.95 Celebrity fan club postings like the Brad Pitt Web Site are examples of users posting copyrighted photos to the Net. This home page acknowledges that these photos are copyrighted so please be nice. This acknowledgment confirms the Samuelson and Glushko observation that those who post information not authored by them on Internet bulletin boards or in electronic newsletters delivered by Internet sometimes do so with a conspicuous notice that it is being posted without copyright permission, thereby asserting the posters view of an appropriate scope of fair use.96 Furthermore, net users generally regard it as fair to download items from the bulletin board for ones personal use, and even to send a copy to a friend who might otherwise not see the item, it is considered bad manners (or worse) to redistribute more widely someone elses posting without its authors permission.97 It goes without saying that policing user behavior as it relates to copyright is difficult at best.98 ONE PUBLISHERS VIEW OF DOWNLOADING WORKS Recently Time posted Sports Illustrated swimsuit issue photos for personal downloading at the Pathfinder Website that ended up on one of the Supermodel websites. Times legal head Harry Johnston said The restriction is that you can download these pictures for personal use only, but not for further distribution. That would constitute an infringement.99 The idea of policing every single individual who might violate someones copyright has not existed for the last 30 years, with the advent of Xeroxing and videotaping. Its just a fact of life with the technological means we have of making copies. You simply cant catch them all, says Mr. Johnston.100 User liability for copy right infringement in a non commercial context is a disputed issued.101 A user posting someone elses photo to a bulletin board or a homepage raises questions of which fair use provi sion might be appropriate? Education, research, comment or criticism?102 Ms. ORourke predicts that users are infringing where a bulletin board subscriber forwards a document to a large number of non-subscribers.103 But what about home pages? In this context other Net users link to the page. Is the activity of posting Brad Pitt photos to a home page substantially different than uploading Playboy photos to a bulletin board?104 In the Playboy case the court found that a bulletin board operator violated Playboys exclusive rights to display and distribute its photos.105 While home page authors are not charging a subscription fee like the bulletin board operator, they are offering unauthorized, copyrighted photos for public display. In the context of the homepage author, the issue is not that someone is making money off the photo, but that an individual photographer could lose the market for a great photo when someone scans it into a homepage for all the world to access. AN AGENCY VIEW OF POSTING Jim Roehrig, president of Outline photo agency, takes the position that unauthorized posting is a violation of the copyright holders exclusive rights to distribute and publicly display their work.106 Outline represents fashion and celebrity photographers. Roehrig admits to being at a loss as to how to handle supermodels postings.107 Right now Roehrig says, Im hoping that this is relatively small usage and wont become a regular thing.108 THE USERS RIGHT TO VIEW But what about Net users right to view and access information. Copyright law clearly protects the copyright holder. One of the goals of the National Information Infrastructure is free or low cost information.109 The suggestions of the Green Paper drafted by the federal governments Information Infrastructure Task Force are controversial.110 See also a Response to NII. .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 , .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 .postImageUrl , .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 , .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7:hover , .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7:visited , .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7:active { border:0!important; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7:active , .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7 .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u99adc1fd354e6bf3467fa3d9bbf666f7:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Artificial Intelligence Essay We will write a custom essay on The 411 on copyright for net p specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Ms. Litman says that the draft recommendations would vest in copyrightowners control of any reproduction or transmission of their works, and thendefines reproduction and transmission to include any appearance, even afleeting one, of a protected work in any computer, and any transfer of thatwork to, from, or through any other computer, the Draft Reportsrecommendations would enhance the exclusive rights in the copyright bundle sofar as to give the copyright owner the exclusive right to control reading,viewing or listening to any work in digitized form.

Edward H Angle

Edward H Angle Edward H. Angle - um g ©nio intelectual e mec ¢nico1EDWARD H.ANGLE - um g ©nio intelectual e mec ¢nico"Amante da Arte e da Natureza, amigo  ­ntimo de  ¡rvores e flores mas fundamentalmente fundadorda ci ªncia da Ortodontia,    qual deu o melhor pensamento de uma vida rica em experi ªncias eprovas"(Instituto Thomas W. Evans, homenagem a Edward Angle - 1915)A preocupa §Ã‚ £o do Homem com o crescimento e alinhamento dos dentes remete-nos ao Antigo Egipto (~3000 A.C), onde m ºmias foram encontradas com bandas de metal ligadas a dentesindividuais para diminuir o espa §o entre os mesmos, bem como, aparelhos ortod ´nticos primitivos esurpreendentemente bem elaborados, nas escava §Ã‚ µes gregas, etruscas e mexicanas (ver fig.n º1). (1) De acordo com Moyers (1988), Hip ³crates est ¡ entre os primeiros que comentaram sobredeforma §Ã‚ £o craniofacial: " Entre os indiv ­duos com cabe §as grandes e afiadas, alguns t ªm pesco §ose ossos fortes. Outros tà ‚ ªm palatos arqueados, dentes irregulares ou sem, e alguns s £o afectados pordores de cabe §a e de ouvidos" (tradu §Ã‚ £o nossa).€ medida que a Odontologia sedesenvolveu nos s ©culos XVIII e XIX, umgrande n ºmero de dispositivos para a"regulariza §Ã‚ £o dos dentes" e sistemas declassifica §Ã‚ £o foram descritos por v ¡riosautores e utilizados esporadicamente pordentistas da  ©poca. Contudo, a regula §Ã‚ £o dosdentes como alinhamento ortod ´ntico s ³ foiformalmente referida como tal a partir dePierre Fauchard (1678-1793), que  ©considerado o "pai da medicina dent ¡riamoderna" e Ortodontia com a inven §Ã‚ £o dabandeau ou bandolet em 1723. Esta foi aprimeira aplica §Ã‚ £o expansiva, consistindo numarco maxilar labial pesado de metal ao qual osdentes eram ligados.(1)Figura n º1 - Antigo cr ¢nio grego (cerca de 300 A.C)mostra o uso de fios de ouro para alinhar e estabilizar osincisivos mandibulares num adulto cuja maloclus £o foicomplicada por d oen §a periodontal (Fonte: Handbookof Ortodontics, 1988)Edward H. Angle - um g ©nio intelectual e mec ¢nico2Ao que chamamos hoje de oclus £o normal j ¡ tinha sido descrito no s ©culo XVIII por JohnHunter. Carabelli, na metade do s ©culo XIX, foi provavelmente aquele que primeiro descreveu umsistema de classifica §Ã‚ £o anormal no relacionamento entre as arcadas dent ¡rias superior e inferior,baseando-se na posi §Ã‚ £o dos incisivos e caninos:1. Mordex normalis - oclus £o normal com os incisivos superiores cobrindo e sobrepondo-seaos inferiores;2. Mordex rectus - rela §Ã‚ £o incisal de bordo a bordo;3. Mordex apertus - mordida aberta;4. Mordex retrusus - oclus £o cruzada ou invertida anterior;5. Mordex tortuosus - combina §Ã‚ £o anterior e posterior de mordidas cruzadas.O termo mordida topo a topo e overbite, s £o na realidade derivadas do sistema declassifica §Ã‚ £o de Carabelli.Ap ³s 1850, apareceram os primeiros tratados que descreveram a Ortodont ia de maneirasistem ¡tica sendo o mais not ¡vel destes o de Norman Kingsley - Oral Deformities. Segundo Wahl(2005), Kingsley influenciou significativamente a odontologia americana durante a  ºltima metade dos ©culo XIX.A Ortodontia, como especialidade, data dos princ ­pios do s ©culo passado. O termo(Orthodonsie) foi originado por um franc ªs chamado Lefoulon, aproximadamente na mesma  ©pocaem que o interesse por estes problemas se tornavam comuns. O ano de 1900 foi escolhido como oano em que se iniciou a especialidade mais antiga da Odontologia, sendo que foi neste mesmo anoque se fundou a Escola de Ortodontia de Angle em St. Louis, e no ano seguinte a SociedadeAmericana de Ortodontistas (Edward H. Angle foi o primeiro presidente) 2. Apesar das suascontribui §Ã‚ µes e de seus contempor ¢neos, a  ªnfase da Ortodontia permaneceu no alinhamento dosdentes e na correc §Ã‚ £o das suas propor §Ã‚ µes faciais. Numa  ©poca em que a denti §Ã‚ £o intacta era umar aridade, os detalhes de rela §Ã‚ µes oclusais eram considerados sem import ¢ncia.A figura mais dominante, din ¢mica e influente na ortodontia foi EDWARD HARTLEYANGLE (1855-1930) que desenvolveu um conceito de oclus £o normal no final do s ©culo XIX,baseando-se no estudo e observa §Ã‚ £o de cr ¢nios humanos e indiv ­duos vivos. Ele  © recordado como o"Pai da Ortodontia Moderna", tendo sido dos principais respons ¡veis pela separa §Ã‚ £o da ortodontia dapr ¡tica geral e afirmando-a como uma reconhecida e distinta ci ªncia.(4,5) Angle nasceu a 1 de Junhode 1855 em Herrick, Pensilv ¢nia. Depois de uma inf ¢ncia passada no campo, ingressou na escola deOdontologia da Pensilv ¢nia e graduou-se em 1878. Praticou Odontologia em Minneapolis,interessando-se pela correc §Ã‚ £o e deformidade dos maxilares. Os problemas com que se deparouestimularam-no a dedicar o resto da sua vida    Ortodontia.Edward H. Angle - um g ©nio intelectual e mec ¢nico3Em 1887, a presentou um artigo intitulado "Irregularities of the teeth". Este foi considerado aprimeira edi §Ã‚ £o de seu livro did ¡ctico, que passou por sete edi §Ã‚ µes, com tradu §Ã‚ £o para muitas l ­nguasestrangeiras.A s ©tima edi §Ã‚ £o foi publicada com os seguintes t ­tulos, sendo que os tr ªs primeiros foram emformato de panfletos:1) Irregularities of the teeth, 1887;2) A System of appliance for correcting of irregularities of the Teeth, 1890;3) The Angle system of regulating and retention of the teeth, 1892;4) The Angle system of regulation and retention of the teeth - with an addition of treatmentof fractures of the maxillae, 1895;5) Angle system of regulation and retention of the teeth and treatment of fractures of themaxillae, 1899;6) Malocclusion of the teeth and fractures of the maxillae, 1900;7) Treatment of malocclusion of the teeth, 1907.A classifica §Ã‚ £o de Angle, publicada na Dental Cosmos, permanece a classifica §Ã‚ £o maislargamente aceite de malo clus £o1. Baseada na rela §Ã‚ £o dos primeiros molares superiores com osinferiores, forneceu os primeiros meios para caracteriza §Ã‚ £o das maloclus µes e a aceita §Ã‚ £o universalpela classe m ©dica. Segundo Angle (1900), a c ºspide m ©sio-vestibular do primeiro molar superiorrepousa no sulco central vestibular do primeiro molar inferior e os dentes ocluem nos arcos demaneira alinhada, resultando numa oclus £o ideal. Deste modo, se a oclus £o fosse normal, n £oimportava como estavam relacionados os ossos maxilares, a musculatura ou a articula §Ã‚ £otemporomandibular.Angle descreveu tr ªs tipos b ¡sicos do que ele chamou de maloclus £o, representando desviosna dimens £o antero-posterior e afirma na sua  ºltima publica §Ã‚ £o:- "Examined carefully it will be seen that perfect occlusion is incompatible with any degree ofirregularity, but that the arrangement of the teeth must be even and regular, each contributingsupport to the others, all in perfec t harmony. Not only this, but the jaws, the muscles of mastication,the lips, and even the facial lines will then be in best harmony with the peculiar facial type of theindividual".1 Entenda-se por maloclus £o toda a discrep ¢ncia dento-dent ¡ria, dento-maxilar ou maxilomandibular.Edward H. Angle - um g ©nio intelectual e mec ¢nico4Existem certos princ ­pios nos quais a classifica §Ã‚ £o de Angle se baseou:a) O corpo mandibular com sua respectiva arcada dental deve ocupar um posicionamentonormal em rela §Ã‚ £o a anatomia craniana;b) O arco dent ¡rio maxilar, por estar constru ­do sobre uma base fixa em rela §Ã‚ £o a anatomiacraniana,  © mais ou menos est ¡vel em rela §Ã‚ £o aos v ¡rios limites da cabe §a.Consequentemente, poderia escolher-se um ponto atrav ©s do qual pudesse verificar e julgar arela §Ã‚ £o do arco dent ¡rio inferior.c) Seleccionou o primeiro molar superior, por acreditar que os mesmos ocupavam posi §Ã‚ µesnormais com maior freq u ªncia do que qualquer outro dente, e por que serem estes dentesmenos limitados para tomarem suas posi §Ã‚ µes na arcadad) Observou tamb ©m a rela §Ã‚ £o normal dos caninos que, devido ao seu tamanho, for §avam a suapassagem para dentro de posi §Ã‚ µes normais.Figura n º 2- Representa §Ã‚ £o da arcada dent ¡ria em oclus £o normal.Fonte: Treatment of malocclusion of the teeth and fractures of the maxillae : Angle's system (1900)Estes princ ­pios sustentam a divis £o da maloclus £o em tr ªs classes2, que apresentam asseguintes caracter ­sticas:Classe I: Maloclus µes caracterizadas por uma rela §Ã‚ £o anteroposterior normal dos primeiros molarespermanentes: a c ºspide mesio-vestibular do primeiro molar superior est ¡ no mesmo plano que osulco vestibular do primeiro molar inferior. Sendo as rela §Ã‚ µes sagitais normais, a situa §Ã‚ £o de2 "Angle introduziu o termo "classe" para caracterizar rela §Ã‚ µes mesodistais distintas dos dentes. Arca das dent ¡rias e os maxilares que dependiam da posi §Ã‚ £o sagital dos primeiros molares permanentes, considerando-os como pontos fixos da arquictetura craniofacial" - CANUT BRUSOLA; ALCINA, E.P. Ortodontia Cl ­nica. Barcelona: Salvat, 1989, pags 101 e ss.Edward H. Angle - um g ©nio intelectual e mec ¢nico5maloclus £o consiste nas m ¡s posi §Ã‚ µes individuais dos dentes, anomalias nas rela §Ã‚ µes verticais,transversais ou o desvio sagital dos incisivos.Classe II: Maloclus µes caracterizadas pela rela §Ã‚ £o sagital anormal dos primeiros molares: o sulcovestibular do primeiro molar permanente inferior est ¡ em posi §Ã‚ £o distal relativamente    c ºspidemesio-vestibular do molar superior. Toda a arcada maxilar est ¡ anteriormente deslocada ou a arcadamandibular est ¡ retru ­da em rela §Ã‚ £o    superior.Dentro da classe II, distinguem-se diferentes tipos ou divis µes:Classe II-, divis £o 1/divis £o 2: Distinguem-se pela posi §Ã‚ £o do s incisivos superiores. A classe II,divis £o 1, caracteriza-se por estar com os incisivos em protus £o, aumentando a projec §Ã‚ £o. Na classeII, divis £o 2, os incisivos centrais superiores est £o retroinclinados e os incisivos laterais cominclina §Ã‚ £o vestibular. Existe uma diminui §Ã‚ £o da projec §Ã‚ £o e um aumento da sobremordidainterincisiva.Classe II - completa/incompleta: De acordo com o graude desvio sagital dos molares, uma classe II completa  ©aquela que a c ºspide distovestibular do primeiro molarsuperior est ¡ ao n ­vel do sulco vestibular inferior. Umaclasse II incompleta  © uma m ¡ rela §Ã‚ £o de grau inferior emque as faces mesiais est £o no mesmo plano vertical.Figura n º3 - Representa §Ã‚ £o esquem ¡tica Classe IIFonte: Treatment of malocclusion of the teethand fractures of the maxillae : Angle's system (1900)Classe II unilateral/bilateral: A classe II pode afectar as duas arcadas, direita e esquerda ou afectarsomente um dos lados. No caso em que  © unilateral chama-se classe II subdivis £o (direita ouesquerda).Edward H. Angle - um g ©nio intelectual e mec ¢nico6Classe III: O sulco vestibular do primeiro molar inferior est ¡ localizado mesialmente em rela §Ã‚ £o   c ºspide mesiovestibular do primeiro molar superior. A arcada dent ¡ria mandibular est ¡ projectada, amaxilar retru ­da. Tamb ©m se pode falar numa subdivis £o nos casos em que s ³ um lado est ¡ afectado,direito ou esquerdo. A rela §Ã‚ £o incisiva est ¡ invertida com os incisivos superiores ocluindo por lingualcom os inferiores.A s ©tima e  ºltima edi §Ã‚ £o do seu livro,Tratamento da Maloclus £o dos dentes (1907), tornou-seno principal da sua profiss £o. Angle det ©m 37 patentes eas suas mais reconhecidas aplica §Ã‚ µes s £o o Arcoexpansivo (E-arch - 1900), a aplica §Ã‚ £o pin-and-tube(1910), o arco ribbon (1916) e aplica §Ã‚ £o edgewise(1928/1929). A  ºltima, com algumas modifica §Ã‚ µes,  ©uma das mais aceites em Ortodontia. O modeloEdgewise primeiramente apresentado por Angle,resultado da experi ªncia adquirida nos modelos anteriores, consistia numa forma modificada dosbraquetes e posi §Ã‚ £o dos slots, colocando-os num plano horizontal, em vez de vertical. Esta aplica §Ã‚ £oera mantida em posi §Ã‚ £o por delicados fios de a §o inoxid ¡vel.Sendo assim, para al ©m de uma vida dedicada    investiga §Ã‚ £o, Angle dedicou-se de formabastante interessada ao ensino e em exclusivo a partir de 1911. O aluno mais brilhante da sua escolatalvez tenha sido Charles H. Tweed, p ³s-graduado em 1928. Por esta altura, Angle contava com 73anos e, pela primeira vez, n £o estava    frente do curso, que foi ministrado de forma improvisada porGeorge Hahn. Tweed estava com 33 anos. Angle ficou desapontado pelo modo como o aparelhoEdgewise foi recebido e estava insatisfeito com as modifica §Ã‚ µes que foram introduzidas por algunsde seus alunos. Decidiu es crever um artigo descrevendo a aparelhagem. Como Tweed havia rec ©mterminado o curso, e Angle admirava sua habilidade, convidou-o para ajud ¡-lo. Durante 7 semanaseles trabalharam juntos e, nesse processo, tornaram-se grandes amigos. Angle fez dois importantespedidos a seu jovem disc ­pulo:1) dedicar sua vida ao desenvolvimento do aparelho Edgewise e2) empreender todo esfor §o poss ­vel para que a Ortodontia fosse reconhecida comoespecialidade da Odontologia.Edward H. Angle - um g ©nio intelectual e mec ¢nico7Tweed n £o desapontou o mestre. Assegurou a aprova §Ã‚ £o da lei que reconhecia a Ortodontiacomo primeira especialidade da Odontologia, nos Estados Unidos.Edward Angle foi apontado por muitos como o maior g ©nio da Ortodontia, foi um homemperfeccionista e extremamente imaginativo contribuindo de forma marcante para o desenvolvimentoda ci ªncia Ortod ´ntica. Sendo um homem de ideias fixas, defendeu at © morrer (11 de Agosto de1930) uma pol ­tica n £ o extracionista dos dentes na Ortodontia. Esta vis £o foi abandonada pelo seudisc ­pulo Tweed alguns anos p ³s sua morte, com a apresenta §Ã‚ £o de um artigo com estudos de v ¡rioscasos cl ­nicos10. Angle, destacou-se essencialmente pela forma e capacidade de aplica §Ã‚ £o dosprinc ­pios b ¡sicos da mec ¢nica ao movimento dos dentes, em harmonia com disciplinas como aFisiologia e a pr ³pria Arte, possibilitando um conhecimento aprofundado dos problemas, causas esolu §Ã‚ µes de maloclus µes. Pouco tempo antes de morrer, Angle afirmou: "Terminei a minha obra. ‰t £o perfeita como pude faz ª-la".(13)A Ortodontia evoluiu de forma extensa e hoje em dia inclui o estudo do crescimentocraniofacial, o desenvolvimento da oclus £o e o tratamento de anormalidades dentofaciais."‰ importante entender a hist ³ria. No caso, a hist ³ria de um peda §o, de uma fase da Ortodontia, porque parase entender o que est ¡ acontecendo no presente, ou o que ir ¡ acontecer no futuro,  © necess ¡rio analisar opassado."(Oliver Wendell Holmes)Artur Filipe Sim µes - Novembro de 2008Edward H. Angle - um g ©nio intelectual e mec ¢nico8Refer ªncias Bibliogr ¡ficas1. ACKERMAN, J. L., PROFFIT, W. R. "The Caracteristics of Malocclusion: a Modern approach to Classification and Diagnosis", Am. J. Ortho., 56 (5), 443-454, nov., 1969.2. WAHL, N. "Orthodontics in 3 millennia." (Chapter 2: Entering the modern era.) Am J OrthodDentofacial Orthop; 127:510-5; 2005.3. ANGLE, E. H. 5th ed. Philadelphia, S.S. White manufacturing Co., 1897 4. CHAPMAN, H. "Orthodontics: fifty years in retrospect". Am J Orthod; 41:421-42. 1955 5. WEINBERGER, BW. "Dr Edward Hartley Angle: his influence on orthodontics". Am J Orthod1950; 36:596-607.6. WAHL, N. "Orthodontics in 3 millennia." (Chapter 2: Entering the modern era.) Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop; 127:510-5; 2005.7. LA LUCE, MAURO. "Terapie Ortodontiche", 1 ª edi §Ã‚ £o, It ¡lia, Unione Tipografico, 200 2 (tr. it. de Alessandro Lombardi, Actualidades m ©dico odontol ³gicas latino americanas, Caracas -Venezuela, 2002)8. MOYERS, ROBERT. " Handobook of Orthodontics", 4 ª edi §Ã‚ £o, USA, Year book medical publishers, 1988.9. JACOBSON, B. N. Hist ³ria da Ortodontia nos Estados Unidos da Am ©rica. In: INTERLANDI, S.Ortodontia: bases para a inicia §Ã‚ £o. S £o Paulo: Ed. da USP, 1977.10. TWEED, C. H. "Clinical Orthodontics". St. Louis: C. V. Mosby, 1966. 11. ANGLE, E. H. "The latest and best in orthodontic mechanism".Dental Cosmos, Philadelphia, v.70, no. 12, p. 1143-1158, 1928.12. GRABER, T.; VANARSDALL, R. L. J. Orthodontics current principles and techniques. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby, 2000.13. HANH, G. W. "Edward Hartley Angle (1855-1930). Am J Orthodont, 51:529-535, 1965. 14. ANGLE EH. "Treatment of Malocclusion of the Teeth and Fractures of the Maxillae, Angle'sSystem." 6th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: SS White Dental Manufacturing; 1900:5-15.15. CANUT BRUSOLA; ALCINA, E.P. Or todontia Cl ­nica. Barcelona: Salvat, 1989Dental needle-nose pliers designed by Fauchard in ...

Choose an element and research its properties and uses. You must use Essay

Choose an element and research its properties and uses. You must use at least 2 reliable sources for your information. I do not want a list of properties; it must still be in paragraph format - Essay Example Magnesium can never be found in its natural free state because of its highly reactive nature and forms compounds readily such as magnesium oxide, magnesium hydroxide, magnesium carbonate and magnesium fluoride. The melting point for magnesium is 1,200 °F and turns into a gas at 2,025 °F. It is 1.74 times denser than water (Uttley 2000). Burning of magnesium initiates a bright white light and ignites at 650 °C (Krebs 2006). Magnesium harbors a variety of helpful functions in the industrial and chemical world. Magnesium due to its bright flame properties is used in aerial flares and was used as aerial firebombs during war. Magnesium is considered a good construction metal and is used in aircrafts, space and automobile industries. Magnesium is also used in the process of thermal reduction to produce other metals such as zinc, nickel and zirconium. Milk of Magnesia is used as an antacid; magnesium in Epsom salts is used as laxatives and for treating laxatives and Epsom salts are also used for tanning leathers (Krebs 2006). Chemistry is not merely the science of matter and studying different interactions and energy processes of matter, it also makes use of the knowledge to incorporate it in the daily life activities for human benefit. The study of different properties of Magnesium and the ability of magnesium to form an array of compounds enables it to be used for a plethora of purposes in the automobile and aircraft industries, pharmacological uses, leather factories, chemical industries and war-related purposes. Krebs, Robert E.  The History and Use of Our Earths Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 2006. Print. Uttley,